The Turks as Expressions of Sovereignty and Subordination in Mamluk Inscriptions

Kemal Özkurt

Makale detayları

The Turks as Expressions of Sovereignty and Subordination in Mamluk Inscriptions

Yazarlar:

Kemal Özkurt

Yayıncı:

Ege University

Ana Başlıklar:

İslam Sanatları

Dergi:

Sanat Tarihi Dergisi Vol.34 Issue 1, pp.373-395

Belge Tipi:

Makale

Yayın Tarihi:

7/2025

Belge Dili:

Türkçe

Document ID (Org No.):

2001354655

pISSN:

1300-5707

Anahtar kelimeler:

Özet:

 In the tradition of Islamic epigraphy, it is common to encounter laudatory expressions praising rulers, either as patrons bânî or simply as the reigning sultans of the time. In such cases, the inscriptions may also recount the sultans military campaigns and victories. Referring to the territories or peoples under the sultans rule is another rhetorical device employed to underscore the magnitude of his sovereignty. In this context, the number of nations governed and the vastness of the lands controlled are among the elements that signify the rulers power. In the epigraphic material from the early period of Turkish-Islamic epigraphy -such as that of the Qarakhanids, Ghaznavids, and Great Seljuks- it is observed that Turkish rulers made little explicit reference to their own ethnic identity in inscriptions when mentioning the peoples, they governed. In contrast, the names of surrounding cultures appear more frequently in these texts. In this regard, both neighboring Muslim communities and, notably, non-Muslim groups are often included in such expressions. Beginning with the Anatolian Seljuks and continuing into the Ottoman period, we begin to encounter explicit references to the term Turk. A similar emphasis on Turkish identity is also notable in the inscriptions of the Mamluk Sultanate, a contemporary Turkish state of the Ottomans. The list, often extending with references such as Arab, Persian, Rûm Anatolian, and Armenian, may at times conclude with a phrase such as master of the rulers of all nations. This expression serves as a summarizing formula, especially when the architectural space available for the inscription reaches its limit, replacing the enumeration of further ethnic or cultural groups with a comprehensive reference to all peoples. Despite its specific origins and early usage, the term Afranj, which came to denote Western or European during the Mamluk period, broadly referred to all non-Muslims living in the western regions of the Islamic world. Although it appears only in a limited number of examples, the political implications of the geographical area it denotes are of particular significance. Although the term ʿAjam underwent semantic expansion and shifts over different periods, in its narrower sense it refers specifically to Persians, while in a broader sense it can denote all foreign peoples, depending on the perspective of the user. However, within the context of Mamluk epigraphy -the focus of this article- the term ʿAjam most often signifies the Iranian people and the broader Persian cultural sphere. The Daylamites -an Iran- centered ethnic group that ruled over the same geographical region- also appear among the communities mentioned in Mamluk epigraphy. In Mamluk inscriptions, the Turks are frequently mentioned in conjunction with the Daylamites. This paper aims to examine the terms directly used to refer to the Turks in the inscriptions of the Mamluks -as a Turkish state- such as Turk and, occasionally, Rûm, which is employed based on geographical association.

 In the tradition of Islamic epigraphy, it is common to encounter laudatory expressions praising rulers, either as patrons bânî or simply as the reigning sultans of the time. In such cases, the inscriptions may also recount the sultans military campaigns and victories. Referring to the territories or peoples under the sultans rule is another rhetorical device employed to underscore the magnitude of his sovereignty. In this context, the number of nations governed and the vastness of the lands controlled are among the elements that signify the rulers power. In the epigraphic material from the early period of Turkish-Islamic epigraphy -such as that of the Qarakhanids, Ghaznavids, and Great Seljuks- it is observed that Turkish rulers made little explicit reference to their own ethnic identity in inscriptions when mentioning the peoples, they governed. In contrast, the names of surrounding cultures appear more frequently in these texts. In this regard, both neighboring Muslim communities and, notably, non-Muslim groups are often included in such expressions. Beginning with the Anatolian Seljuks and continuing into the Ottoman period, we begin to encounter explicit references to the term Turk. A similar emphasis on Turkish identity is also notable in the inscriptions of the Mamluk Sultanate, a contemporary Turkish state of the Ottomans. The list, often extending with references such as Arab, Persian, Rûm Anatolian, and Armenian, may at times conclude with a phrase such as master of the rulers of all nations. This expression serves as a summarizing formula, especially when the architectural space available for the inscription reaches its limit, replacing the enumeration of further ethnic or cultural groups with a comprehensive reference to all peoples. Despite its specific origins and early usage, the term Afranj, which came to denote Western or European during the Mamluk period, broadly referred to all non-Muslims living in the western regions of the Islamic world. Although it appears only in a limited number of examples, the political implications of the geographical area it denotes are of particular significance. Although the term ʿAjam underwent semantic expansion and shifts over different periods, in its narrower sense it refers specifically to Persians, while in a broader sense it can denote all foreign peoples, depending on the perspective of the user. However, within the context of Mamluk epigraphy -the focus of this article- the term ʿAjam most often signifies the Iranian people and the broader Persian cultural sphere. The Daylamites -an Iran- centered ethnic group that ruled over the same geographical region- also appear among the communities mentioned in Mamluk epigraphy. In Mamluk inscriptions, the Turks are frequently mentioned in conjunction with the Daylamites. This paper aims to examine the terms directly used to refer to the Turks in the inscriptions of the Mamluks -as a Turkish state- such as Turk and, occasionally, Rûm, which is employed based on geographical association.

 In the tradition of Islamic epigraphy, it is common to encounter laudatory expressions praising rulers, either as patrons bânî or simply as the reigning sultans of the time. In such cases, the inscriptions may also recount the sultans military campaigns and victories. Referring to the territories or peoples under the sultans rule is another rhetorical device employed to underscore the magnitude of his sovereignty. In this context, the number of nations governed and the vastness of the lands controlled are among the elements that signify the rulers power. In the epigraphic material from the early period of Turkish-Islamic epigraphy -such as that of the Qarakhanids, Ghaznavids, and Great Seljuks- it is observed that Turkish rulers made little explicit reference to their own ethnic identity in inscriptions when mentioning the peoples, they governed. In contrast, the names of surrounding cultures appear more frequently in these texts. In this regard, both neighboring Muslim communities and, notably, non-Muslim groups are often included in such expressions. Beginning with the Anatolian Seljuks and continuing into the Ottoman period, we begin to encounter explicit references to the term Turk. A similar emphasis on Turkish identity is also notable in the inscriptions of the Mamluk Sultanate, a contemporary Turkish state of the Ottomans. The list, often extending with references such as Arab, Persian, Rûm Anatolian, and Armenian, may at times conclude with a phrase such as master of the rulers of all nations. This expression serves as a summarizing formula, especially when the architectural space available for the inscription reaches its limit, replacing the enumeration of further ethnic or cultural groups with a comprehensive reference to all peoples. Despite its specific origins and early usage, the term Afranj, which came to denote Western or European during the Mamluk period, broadly referred to all non-Muslims living in the western regions of the Islamic world. Although it appears only in a limited number of examples, the political implications of the geographical area it denotes are of particular significance. Although the term ʿAjam underwent semantic expansion and shifts over different periods, in its narrower sense it refers specifically to Persians, while in a broader sense it can denote all foreign peoples, depending on the perspective of the user. However, within the context of Mamluk epigraphy -the focus of this article- the term ʿAjam most often signifies the Iranian people and the broader Persian cultural sphere. The Daylamites -an Iran- centered ethnic group that ruled over the same geographical region- also appear among the communities mentioned in Mamluk epigraphy. In Mamluk inscriptions, the Turks are frequently mentioned in conjunction with the Daylamites. This paper aims to examine the terms directly used to refer to the Turks in the inscriptions of the Mamluks -as a Turkish state- such as Turk and, occasionally, Rûm, which is employed based on geographical association.

 İslam kitabe geleneğinde, bani veya sadece dönemin sultanı olarak hükümdarları öven ifadelere sıkça rastlanır. Bu durumda bazen sultanın yaptığı savaşlar ve kazandığı zaferler de anlatılır. Hakimiyeti altında bulunan coğrafyalar veya milletlerden bahsetmek de hükümdarın büyüklüğünü ifade bakımından başvurulan araçlardan biridir. Övgülerin karakterini belirleyen asıl etken, çoğunlukla kitabenin hangi yapı türü ve yapının hangi kısmında yer aldığıdır. Mezar anıtlarında ve dini mimaride daha mütevazı ifadeler tercih edilirken, sivil mimari örneklerinde övgü sınırları zorlanmaktadır. Türk hükümdarları kitâbelerde yönettikleri milletlerden bahsederken, genellikle kendi milletlerinin adını anmaz, çevre kültürlere vurgu yaparlar. Bu anlamda başta gayrimüslimler olmak üzere komşu Müslüman milletler de bu ifadede yerlerini alırlar. Arap, Acem, Rum, Ermeni şeklinde uzayan liste, zaman zaman bütün milletlerin hükümdarlarının efendisi şeklinde de bitebilmektedir. Batılı ve Avrupalı anlamında kullanılan Efrenc, geniş anlamda İslam coğrafyasının batısındaki tüm gayrimüslimleri nitelemektedir. Bazen Müslüman halklardan bahsedilirken Şam örneğinde olduğu gibi, şehir veya coğrafya zikredilerek orada yaşayanlar ve yerel yönetimler kastedilir. Bu makalede, bir Türk devleti olarak Memlükluların mimari kitâbelerinde, Türkleri ifade etmek üzere doğrudan kullanılan Türk ve zaman zaman coğrafyadan hareketle bir isimlendirme olarak kullanılan Rûm gibi terimler, kitâbeleri bağlamında ele alınıp, öncülleri, çağdaş ve haleflerinin örnekleri ile mukayese edilmiştir.

Makale detayları

The Turks as Expressions of Sovereignty and Subordination in Mamluk Inscriptions

Yazarlar:

Kemal Özkurt

Yayıncı:

Ege University

Ana Başlıklar:

İslam Sanatları

Dergi:

Sanat Tarihi Dergisi Vol.34 Issue 1, pp.373-395

Belge Tipi:

Makale

Yayın Tarihi:

7/2025

Belge Dili:

Türkçe

Document ID (Org No.):

2001354655

pISSN:

1300-5707

Mamluk

Turk

Inscription

Sovereignty

ArchitectureMemlûklu

Türk

kitâbe

hâkimiyet

mimari

Sayı

Makale detayları

Yazarlar: Kemal Özkurt

Yayıncı: Ege University

Ana Başlıklar: İslam Sanatları

Dergi: Sanat Tarihi Dergisi Vol.34 Issue 1, pp.373-395

Belge Tipi: Makale

Yayın Tarihi: 7/2025

Belge Dili: Türkçe

Document ID (Org No.): 2001354655

pISSN: 1300-5707

Sayı

Yazarlar:

Kemal Özkurt

Yayıncı:

Ege University

Ana Başlıklar:

İslam Sanatları

Dergi:

Sanat Tarihi Dergisi Vol.34 Issue 1, pp.373-395

Belge Tipi:

Makale

Yayın Tarihi:

7/2025

Belge Dili:

Türkçe

Document ID (Org No.):

2001354655

pISSN:

1300-5707